भारतीय संविधान का इतिहास

भारतीय संविधान के वर्तमान आधार को समझने के लिए हमें इतिहास में पीछे मुड़कर देखना होगा हालांकि वर्तमान संविधान का इतिहास 1600 ईसवी से पूर्व का नहीं है । 

प्राचीन भारत की संवैधानिक व्यवस्था:- 

प्राचीन भारत में देश के विभिन्न भागों मैं ऐसी संवैधानिक व्यवस्था विद्यमान थी जो  लोकतांत्रिक व्यवस्था का आभास देती है।

प्राचीन हिंदू ग्रंथों में राज व्यवस्था और राजा के कर्तव्यों का उल्लेख मिलता है। प्राचीन काल में राजा धर्म ग्रंथों का अनुसरण करते हुए शासन व्यवस्था का संचालन करते थे। प्राचीन ग्रंथ  वेदों में आम सभा और समिति का उल्लेख मिलता है जो शासन संचालन के कार्य में राजा का सहयोग करती थी, अन्य राज व्यवस्था से संबंधित ग्रंथों में कौटिल्य का अर्थशास्त्र बौद्ध तथा जैन धर्मों के ग्रंथ मनुस्मृति आदि प्रमुख है। लगभग छठी शताब्दी ईसा पूर्व भारत में 16 महाजनपदों का उदय हुआ। इनमें से अधिकतर राजतंत्रत्मक थे, किंतु वज्जि और मल्ल नाम के महाजनपद गणतंत्र थे। इन राज्यों में शासन राजा द्वारा नहीं चलाए जाते थे। इन राज्यों में शासन व्यवस्था गण या संघ नाम की समिति द्वारा चलाया जाता था। इस प्रकार हमारा देश लोकतांत्रिक

विधियों और व्यवहार से प्राचीन काल से ही परिचित था पर वर्तमान संविधान का स्वरूप अलग है जिसे गढ़ने  के कार्य की शुरुआत अंग्रेजों ने की थी।

वर्तमान संविधान के स्वरूप को समझने के लिए और संविधान को अध्ययन सुविधा की दृष्टि से तीन भागों में बांटा जा सकता है।
(1)  ईस्ट इंडिया कंपनी के अधीन संविधानिक सुधार।
(2)  ब्रिटिश पार्लियामेंट के अधीन संवैधानिक सुधार।
(3)  संविधान सभा द्वारा संविधान का निर्माण
[  1  ] ईस्ट इंडिया कंपनी के अधीन संवैधानिक सुधार
                अंग्रेज व्यापारियों के एक दल ने 1599 को ईस्ट इंडिया कंपनी का गठन किया और दक्षिण पूर्व एशिया के देशों से व्यापार करने का शाही चार्टर 31 दिसंबर सन 1600 को प्राप्त कर लिया। देश की केंद्रीय शक्ति, मुगल सम्राट औरंगजेब की 1707 में मृत्यु के बाद कमजोर पड़ गई। भारतीय राजाओं के आपसी फूट का लाभ उठाकर अंग्रेज व्यापारी  शासक की भूमिका में आ गए। 1757 के प्लासी का युद्ध और 1764 के बक्सर युद्ध में मिली सफलता के साथ देश के एक बड़े भूभाग पर अंग्रेजों का आधिपत्य स्थापित हो गया। कंपनी शासन के अधीन 1726 का राज लेख (the charter act of 1726) महत्वपूर्ण है। इस राज लेख से पूर्व विधि बनाने का अधिकार इंग्लैंड में स्थित निदेशक बोर्ड को था। इस राज लेख द्वारा विधि बनाने का अधिकार भारत में स्थित कोलकाता, मुंबई, और चेन्नई प्रेसीडेंसी के राज्यपाल और उसकी परिषद को दे दिया गया।

                  कंपनी के कर्मचारी 1726 के राज लेख के बाद निरंकुश हो गए, और हर तरीके से धन कमाने का प्रयास करने लगे और भ्रष्टाचार अपनी चरम सीमा तक पहुंच गया। जिस पर लगाम लगाने के लिए रेगुलेटिंग एक्ट 1773 में कंपनी द्वारा लाया गया।

रेगुलेटिंग एक्ट 1773 :--
                   भारतीय व्यापार में व्याप्त भ्रष्टाचार और अनियमितता पर रिपोर्ट देने के लिए तत्कालीन प्रधानमंत्री लॉर्ड नार्थ द्वारा 1772 में एक गुप्त संसदीय समिति का गठन किया। जिसने 1773 में अपना प्रतिवेदन प्रस्तुत किया इस प्रतिवेदन के आधार पर रेगुलेटिंग एक्ट पारित किया गया।

       इस एक्ट की मुख्य विशेषताएं निम्न थी
1) 1726 के एक्ट की तरह इसका उद्देश्य सत्ता हस्तांतरित करना नहीं था। अपितु कंपनी की भारत में कार्यप्रणाली पर ब्रिटिश संसद का नियंत्रण स्थापित करना था।
2)     1773 के रेगुलेटिंग एक्ट को भारत में कंपनी शासन के लिए प्रथम बार लिखित संविधान के रूप में माना जा सकता है यह ब्रिटिश संसदीय नियंत्रण की शुरुआत थी।
3)      बंगाल प्रेसीडेंसी के अधीन मद्रास और मुंबई प्रेसिडेंसी कर दिया गया। बंगाल के गवर्नर को गवर्नर जनरल पद नाम दे दिया गया, प्रथम गवर्नर जनरल वारेन हेस्टिंग्स था।
4)       समस्त भारत के अंग्रेजी क्षेत्रों का शासन बंगाल के गवर्नर जनरल और उसके चार सदस्यीय परिषद में केंद्रित किया गया, परिषद के निर्णय बहुमत से करने की व्यवस्था थी।
5)       कोलकाता में उच्चतम न्यायालय की स्थापना इस अधिनियम द्वारा 1774 ईस्वी में की गई। इस न्यायालय को दीवानी, फौजदारी, जल सेना, और धार्मिक मामलों में अधिकतम अधिकार दिया गया, साथ ही यह एक अभिलेख न्यायालय भी था। इस न्यायालय में निर्णय के विरुद्ध इंग्लैंड स्थित प्रिवी काउंसिल में अपील की व्यवस्था भी की गई थी।
6)        इस उच्चतम न्यायालय में एक मुख्य न्यायाधीश और तीन अपर न्यायाधीश होते थे सर एलिजा इंपे इस न्यायालय के प्रथम मुख्य न्यायाधीश तथा चेंबर्स, हाइड और लेमिंस्टर अपर न्यायाधीश नियुक्त हुए।
7)       कंपनी के संचालक मंडल के सदस्यों की संख्या 24 थी, और कार्यकाल 4 वर्ष। भारत से वापसी के 2 वर्ष के बाद ही कोई व्यक्ति संचालक मंडल का सदस्य बन सकता था।
8)         अंग्रेजी क्षेत्रों के प्रशासन के लिए, गवर्नर जनरल और उसकी परिषद को नियम अध्यादेश बनाने का अधिकार दिया गया।

एक्ट आफ सेटेलमेंट 1781 ;--
1)      रेगुलेटिंग एक्ट की कमियों को दूर करने के लिए इस एक्ट को पारित किया गया था।
2)       इस एक्ट के अधीन गवर्नर जनरल और उसकी परिषद को कोलकाता, मुंबई, और मद्रास, प्रेसीडेंसी  के अलावा बंगाल, बिहार, और उड़ीसा के दीवानी क्षेत्रों के लिए कानून बनाने का अधिकार प्राप्त हुआ था।

पिट्स इंडिया एक्ट 1784 ;--
रेगुलेटिंग एक्ट की कमियों, और ईस्ट इंडिया कंपनी के कर्मचारियों में बढ़ते भ्रष्टाचार, गिरते अनुशासन, कुशासन  के विरुद्ध यह एक्ट पास किया गया इसकी विशेषताएं निम्न थी:-
1)     कंपनी शासन के राजनीतिक दायित्व का भार 6 सदस्य नियंत्रण मंडल को सौंप दिया गया।
2)      नियंत्रण मंडल को भारत में कंपनी की गतिविधियों, आदेशों, निर्देशों को मान्य या अमान्य करने का अधिकार प्राप्त था।
3)      गवर्नर जनरल के परिषद की संख्या 4 से 3 कर दी गई और युद्ध, संधि, राजस्व, सैन्य शक्ति, देसी रियासतों, आदि के नियंत्रण और  अधीक्षण का अधिकार दिया गया।
4)       इस अधिनियम द्वारा भारतीय प्रदेशों को ब्रिटिश अधिकृत भारतीय प्रदेश से संबोधित किया गया।
5)         प्रांतीय शासन को केंद्रीय आदेशों का पालन करना अनिवार्य कर दिया गया। अन्यथा प्रांतीय शासन को बर्खास्त करने का अधिकार गवर्नर जनरल और उसकी परिषद को था।
6)          कंपनी के कर्मचारियों को उपहार लेने पर प्रतिबंध लगाया गया। साथ ही गलत आचरण के लिए मुकदमा चलाने के लिए इंग्लैंड में विशेष कोर्ट की स्थापना भी की गई।

1786 का अधिनियम :--
         इस अधिनियम द्वारा गवर्नर जनरल की शक्तियों में वृद्धि की गई, गवर्नर जनरल को विशेष परिस्थितियों में परिषद के निर्णय को रद्द करने तथा अपने निर्णय को लागू करने का अधिकार प्राप्त हुआ, गवर्नर जनरल को प्रधान सेनापति की शक्तियां भी प्रदान कर दी गई।

1793 का राजलेख (The charter act of 1793). :-
यह अधिनियम भी कंपनी के क्रियाकलापों में सुधार के लिए पारित किया गया था।
1)       गवर्नर जनरल और उसके परिषद के लिए लिखित विधि द्वारा प्रशासन की कार्यप्रणाली को सुनिश्चित किया गया, और इस कानून और विधियों की व्याख्या का अधिकार न्यायालयों को दे दिया गया।
2)       गवर्नर जनरल की परिषद का सदस्य होने के लिए 12 वर्षों का अनुभव अनिवार्य कर दिया गया।
3)       परिषद के सदस्यों को भारतीय राजस्व से वेतन देने का प्रावधान किया गया।

1813 का राजलेख (The charter act of 1813) ;---
संपूर्ण भारतीय क्षेत्रों पर एकाधिकार जमाने के बाद अब अंग्रेज व्यापक प्रशासनिक और विधिक फेरबदल करके, शोषण की रफ्तार को, और बढ़ाना चाहते थे, जिसके लिए इस राज लेख में व्यापक प्रावधान किया। इस राजलेख मुख्य विशेषताएं निम्न थी:-
(1)        भारत से व्यापार करने का ईस्ट इंडिया कंपनी का एकाधिकार समाप्त कर दिया गया। अब कोई भी ब्रिटिश नागरिक भारत से व्यापार करने के लिए स्वतंत्र था।
(2)         ईसाई मिशनरियों को भारत में धर्म प्रचार और धर्मांतरण की अनुमति इस राज लेख से प्राप्त हुई।
(3)         स्थानी स्वायत्तशासी संस्थाओं को, करारोपण का अधिकार प्राप्त हुआ, और आय व्यय के लेखांकन का प्रावधान भी किया गया।
(4)          कंपनी के व्यय पर अधिकतम 20,000 अंग्रेज सैनिक रखने की व्यवस्था हुई।
(5)         कंपनी के व्यापार एकाधिकार समाप्त करने के बदले, कंपनी को यह लाभ दिया गया, वह आगामी 20 वर्षों के लिए भारतीय प्रदेशों तथा राजस्व पर नियंत्रण बनाए रखें।
(6)        भारतीयों की शिक्षा पर एक लाख वार्षिक धनराशि के व्यय करने का प्रावधान किया गया

1833 का राजलेख (The charter act of 1833) :-
वेलेजली की सहायक संधि से अंग्रेजों द्वारा नियंत्रित भारतीय क्षेत्रों में व्यापक वृद्धि हुई। भारतीय क्षेत्रों को नियंत्रित करने और एकाधिकार मजबूत करने के लिए, ब्रिटिश संसद में 1833 का राजलेख लाया जिसकी मुख्य विशेषताएं निम्न थी
1)      चाय और चीन के साथ कंपनी के व्यापारिक एकाधिकार को समाप्त कर दिया गया।
2)       बंगाल के गवर्नर जनरल को समस्त भारत का गवर्नर जनरल बनाया गया, और प्रशासनिक व्यवस्था को केंद्रीकृत किया गया।
3)        कंपनी के सैनिक, असैनिक, प्रशासनिक निरीक्षण, और नियंत्रण का अधिकार भारत के गवर्नर जनरल को सौंपा गया।
4)         उपरोक्त प्रावधानों के अनुरूप संपूर्ण भारत के लिए कानून बनाने का अधिकार गवर्नर जनरल और उसकी परिषद को दिया गया।
5)         गवर्नर जनरल की परिषद में चौथे सदस्य को विधि बनाने के लिए सम्मिलित किया गया। (कानून/विधि मंत्री)।
6)        संपूर्ण देश के लिए एक बजट की व्यवस्था की गई समस्त अधिकार गवर्नर जनरल और उसकी परिषद को सौंपा गया।
7)         भारत में दास प्रथा को गैरकानूनी घोषित किया गया, जिसके फलस्वरूप 1843 में दास प्रथा के समाप्ति की घोषणा हुई।
8)          भारत में संविधान निर्माण की पहली आंशिक झलक 1833 के चार्टर एक्ट में दिखाई देती है।
9)           भारत में प्रचलित नियमों और प्रथाओं को आलेखित करने के लिए एक आयोग का गठन हुआ, जिसके अध्यक्ष लॉर्ड मैकाले थे।

1853 का राजलेख (The charter act of 1853)
1853 का चार्टर एक्ट अंतिम चार्टर एक्ट था। इस एक्ट ने भारतीय प्रशासनिक व्यवस्था में व्यापक बदलाव किया, और अपना प्रभाव लंबे समय तक शासन व्यवस्था पर डाला।
                डलहौजी की हड़प नीति या डॉक्ट्रिन ऑफ़ लैप्स के अंतर्गत, कई राज्य अंग्रेजी क्षेत्रों में मिला लिए गए, और उन राज्यों के विरोध के कारण अंग्रेजों ने कुछ कठोर प्रशासनिक, और नीतिगत निर्णय लिए जिससे इन राज्यों के असंतोष को दबाया जा सके, इस राजलेख के प्रमुख प्रावधान निम्न थे
1)       कंपनी के अधीन कर्मचारियों की नियुक्ति के लिए प्रतियोगिता परीक्षा अनिवार्य कर दी गई।
2)         विधि सदस्य के अस्थाई पद को गवर्नर जनरल की कार्यकारी परिषद में स्थाई कर दिया गया।
3)         विधायी और प्रशासनिक कार्यों को अलग किया गया।
4)        ब्रिटिश संसद को अधिकार दिया गया कि, वह भारतीय क्षेत्रों पर कंपनी के शासन को समाप्त कर सके।

[  2  ] ब्रिटिश पार्लियामेंट के अधीन संवैधानिक सुधार
              अब तक के संवैधानिक विकास में, जहां ब्रिटिश पार्लियामेंट अप्रत्यक्ष रूप से कंपनी शासन को नियंत्रित करने का प्रयास कर रही थी। उसने कंपनी शासन को समाप्त करके प्रत्यक्ष रूप से भारतीय शासन की बागडोर अपने हाथों में ले ली।
                 1857 के प्रथम स्वतंत्रता संग्राम ने कंपनी प्रशासन के भ्रष्टाचार, लूट, और प्रशासनिक अक्षमता, की पोल खोल कर रख दी थी। इस विद्रोह ने अंग्रेजों को इस तथ्य का भान करा दिया था कि तलवार के बल पर जीते गए भारतीय प्रदेशों पर तलवार के दम पर अधिक समय तक  शासन(शोषण)  करना संभव नहीं है।
                प्रथम स्वतंत्रता संग्राम के बाद ब्रिटिश संसद ने  प्रशासनिक व्यवस्था में व्यापक परिवर्तन किया, अप्रैल माह में ब्रिटिश संसद में प्रस्ताव स्वीकृत किया। इस प्रस्ताव के माध्यम से भारत में उत्तरदाई शासन की स्थापना के लिए विधेयक लाया गया जिसे 2 अगस्त 1958 को स्वीकृत और लागू किया गया।
              इस चरण में अगला कदम महारानी विक्टोरिया की घोषणा थी। ब्रिटिश संसद में स्वीकृत अधिनियम की विशेषताएं निम्न थी
1)            भारत में कंपनी के समस्त अधिकारों को समाप्त करके महारानी की ओर से शासन करने के लिए भारत राज्य सचिव (Secretary of state for India) के पद का सृजन किया गया ।
2)             भारत राज्य सचिव की सहायता और सलाह के लिए 15 सदस्यों की भारत परिषद का गठन हुआ। जिसमें 8 सदस्य ब्रिटिश सरकार की ओर से और 7 सदस्य कंपनी के द्वारा नियुक्त किए गए।
3)               कंपनी की सेना आफ ब्रिटिश क्रॉउन की सेना बन गई।
4)              भारत के राज्य सचिव को ब्रिटिश संसद के समक्ष, भारत के बजट को प्रति वर्ष प्रस्तुत करने का दायित्व दिया गया। लॉर्ड स्टेनली को पहला भारत राज्य सचिव बनाया गया।
5)               भारत के गवर्नर जनरल के पद नाम को बदलकर वायसराय कर दिया गया। लॉर्ड कैनिंग पहले वायसराय थे।
                  1857  की स्वतंत्रता संग्राम के बाद व्यापक प्रशासनिक फेरबदल के अलावा भारतीयों को विश्वास में लेने का प्रयास अंग्रेजी शासन द्वारा किया गया इसके लिए 1 नवंबर 1858 को लॉर्ड कैनिंग  ने (वर्तमान प्रयागराज) में रानी विक्टोरिया का घोषणा पत्र पढ़ा, और शाही दरबार लगाया। इस प्रकार इलाहाबाद 1 दिन के लिए देश की अघोषित राजधानी बन गई।

                  इस घोषणा पत्र के महत्वपूर्ण तथ्य निम्न थे।

1)          घोषणा पत्र के अनुसार, प्रत्येक व्यक्ति जाति और धर्म के भेदभाव के बिना, केवल अपनी योग्यता और शिक्षा के आधार पर लोक सेवा में प्रवेश पाने का अधिकारी होगा।
2)           भारतीय प्रजा को भी ब्रिटिश प्रजा के समान अधिकार दिए जाएंगे।
3)             भारतीय लोगों के प्राचीन अधिकारों परंपराओं आदि के सम्मान और न्याय, सद्भाव व धार्मिक सहिष्णुता का पालन किया जाएगा।

भारत परिषद अधिनियम 1861( Indian councils act) ;----
            1858 की महारानी विक्टोरिया की घोषणा के बाद, शासन में सुधारों की अतिशीघ्र आवश्यकता महसूस की जा रही थी। साथ ही भारतीय असंतोष, जो अंग्रेजी शासन के प्रति उत्पन्न हुआ था, उसे संतुलित करने के लिए नए सुधारों की आवश्यकता थी। भारतीय जनमानस में विश्वास उत्पन्न करने के लिए इस अधिनियम द्वारा, दो महत्वपूर्ण कार्य किए गए पहला भारतीय प्रतिनिधियों को विधायी कार्य से जोड़ना और दूसरा विधायी शक्तियां जो अब तक केंद्रीकृत थी, का विकेंद्रीकरण करना। अधिनियम की मुख्य विशेषताएं  निम्न थी।
1)          गवर्नर जनरल को नए प्रांतों के निर्माण और उस प्रांत के प्रमुखों की नियुक्ति का अधिकार दिया गया।
2)           केंद्रीय सरकार को प्रांतीय सरकारों की तुलना में अधिक अधिकार दिए गए।
3)            गवर्नर जनरल और उसकी संस्था, कानून का निर्माण करने वाली संस्था बन गई, और उसे संपूर्ण देश के लिए कानून बनाने का अधिकार प्राप्त हो गया।
4)            नियम बनाने के अधिकार के तहत परिषद में विभागीय प्रणाली (port folio system)की शुरुआत लॉर्ड कैनिंग ने की।
5)          गवर्नर जनरल को अध्यादेश जारी करने का अधिकार प्राप्त हुआ, और यह अध्यादेश 6 माह तक व्यवहारिक रहता था।
6)            इस अधिनियम के तहत 1862 ईस्वी में गवर्नर जनरल लॉर्ड कैनिंग ने नवगठित विधान परिषद में तीन भारतीयों को नियुक्त किया 1  पटियाला के महाराज  2. बनारस के राजा 3.   सर दिनकर राव
                  इसके बाद ब्रिटिश संसद ने 1865 का अधिनियम पारित किया। जिसके अनुसार गवर्नर जनरल के विधायी अधिकारों में वृद्धि हुई और उसे प्रांतों की सीमाओं का निर्धारण करने का अधिकार प्राप्त हुआ
                  1869 में आए अधिनियम से गवर्नर जनरल को अप्रवासी भारतीयों के संबंध में कानून बनाने का अधिकार मिला।
                  1873 के अधिनियम के प्रावधान के अनुसार 1 जनवरी 1874 को ईस्ट इंडिया कंपनी को औपचारिक रूप से भंग कर दिया गया।
                    शाही उपाधि अधिनियम 1876 के प्रावधानों के अनुसार, गवर्नर जनरल की परिषद में लोक निर्माण विभाग जोड़ा गया, और 28 अप्रैल 1876  मे महारानी विक्टोरिया को भारत की शासिका घोषित किया गया, इस प्रकार औपचारिक रूप से भारत का ब्रिटिश सरकार को हस्तांतरण किया गया।

The Living Organisms and Their Surroundings

 A. Fill in the blanks with suitable words.

1. The habitat of plants and animals that live on land is called terrestrial habitat.

2. Plants and animals living in water are called acquatic organisms.

3. Soil, air and water are the abiotic components of a habitat.

4. Trees are normally cone-shaped on the mountains.

5. A cactus plant occurs in a desert habitat

6. Plants and animals form the biotic components of habitat.

7. Plants with fleshy stems are called succulent plants.

8. Trees growing on mountains have shapes to allow snow to slide-off easily. 

B. Multiple choice questions-

1. Organisms that live on land are 

ans. terrestrial

2. Long eyelashes to prevent sand from reaching the eyes are found in 

ans. camel

3. Which of the following plants grows in dry areas?

ans. cactus

4. Which of the following is not a terrestrial habitat?

ans. fresh water

5. Hibernation is an adaptation for 

ans. escaping cold weater

6. Camel excretes 

ans. Solid pallets

7. Leaves are modified into spines in

ans. cactus

C. Very Short answer questions (One Word)

1. Name one desert animal

ans. camel

2. Name arboreal animal 

ans. Monkey 

3. Name given to plants with fleshy stems 

ans. succulent

4. Type of feet found in frogs 

ans. webbed feet.

5. Dolphins breathe through gills. 

ans. False

6. One word for, "hiding by merging with the surroundings"

ans. camouflage

7. Winter sleep of some animals.

ans. Hibernation 

8. Shape of a fish 

 

D. Short Answer Questions

1. Define:-

a. Ecology :-

The study of relationship between living things and their environment.

b. Environment:-

Everything that surrounds living organisms and affects their growth and development. 

2. How does grass survive in windy condition?

ans. Grass can survive in windy condition because of the following conditions

(i) It has strong roots

(ii) Its leaves small to reduce loss of water.

(iii) It has flexible stalks so that they bend and do not break in strong winds.

3. How does hibernation help?

ans. Hibernation helps the animals to save energy and survive the winter without eating much. They utilize the fat stored in their body?

4. Why are green plant called producers?

ans. Green plant called producers because they make their own food by photosynthesis. 

5. What will happen if the organisms do not adopt to their environment ?

ans. Organisms cannot survive if they do not adopt to their environment. 

6. Write two adaptation of trees in tropical rain-forests.

ans. Two adaptation are 

(i) Leaves on trees have grooves and drip tips that allow water to drip easily.

(ii) Vegetation at levels has large leaves to absorb as much sunlight as possible. 

E.  Long answers 

1. Describe the two components of environment. How do they interact with each others?

ans. Our environment has got two components

1. Living or biotic components

2. Non-living abiotic components

Biotic Components:- 

They include all the living organisms. These make the biotic or biological environment. The living organisms are divided into-producers, consumers and de-composers, depending upon the type of food they eat. Biotic components are sub-divided into two parts i.e. Producers:- Greens plants include in the category as they produce their own food by photosynthesis.

Consumers :- All animals include in the category as they cannot make their own food and depend on plants directly or indirectly for their food

Abiotic Components 

Abiotic Components include non-living components like air, water, soil, temperature and sunlight. 

There is constant interaction between the biotic and abiotic components. For example plants need sunlight and water to prepare food. Animals also cannot live without air, water etc. 

 

 

To continued ......

Previous chapter- Body Movements class VI.

Body Movements

1.  Fill in the blanks

1. The framework of bones in our body is called the skeleton.

2. The backbone is made up of many small bones called vertebrae.

3. The backbone protects the spinal cord.

4.  Bones are vertebrate in birds.

5. Joints of the bones help in movement the of the body.

6. A hard rounded structure i snail is called the invertebrate.

7. A snake moves smoothly over a surface by making twisting motion. 

B. Multiple choice questions

1. Knee joint is an example of 

ans. Hinge joint

2. Which of the following is not a movable joint?

ans. joints in the skull

3. The joint which allows movement in all directions is 

ans. ball and socket joint

4. The bones at the joints are help together by 

ans. ligaments

5. Which of these acts as a shock absorber at the joints?

ans. cartilage

6. The number of ribs in the human body is

ans.  12 pairs

C. Very short answer (one word)

1. Number of vertebrae in the spine 

ans. 33

2. Point at which two or more bones meet 

ans. Joints

3. Largest bone in the human body 

ans. femur

4.Total number of bones in human body

ans.206

5.Hallow bones are found in which animals?

ans.Ostriches and emu birds

6.The only movable bone in the skull

ans. Jaw

D. Short answer questions.

1. Why do animals move from one place to another?

ans. Animals move from one place to another in search of food, shelter and suitable environment that protect them. 

2. List any three functions of skeleton.

ans. Three functions of the skeleton are

(i) It gives shape to the body.

(ii) It it protects softer parts of our bodies

(iii) It provides numerous points in our body for the attachment of muscles. 

3. What are joints name the four kind of joints.

Ans. Joints are the places where two or more bones meet.Four kinds of joints are

(i) Ball and socket joint

(ii)Pivotal joint

(iii) hinge joint

(iv) Gliding joint

4. What is cartilage? How is it useful?

ans. Cartilage is the soft tissue present present at the end of the bones.  Cartilage acts as a shock absorber and reduces friction between the bones.

5. What are the functions of spine or backbone?

ans. There are following functions of Backbone.

(i) Backbone provide main support to the body

(ii) Backbone supports the head at the top.

(iii) It attaches shoulder,rib and hip bones.

(iv) Backbones protect the spinal cord.

6. List two adaptation in birds that help them to fly.

ans. Streamlined body or boat-shaped body and hollow bones 

D. Long answer questions

a Ligament and tendon.

Ligament:- It is the strong, stretchy structures that hold the bones together at the joints

Tendon:- It is the strong band that join muscles to bones.

b. Ball Socket Joints and Hinge joint

Ball Socket:-It allows movement in all directions e.g. shoulder joint, hip joint etc. It is freely movable joint. 

Hinge Joint:-  Movement takes place about a single axis in one plane only and resembles the to and fro swing like the hinges of a door, eg. knee joint, elbow joint etc. 

2. How do the following move?

ans. a. earthworm b. snake c. fish

Earthworm:- When the earthworm moves, the circular muscles contract first, and the body becomes thinner and longer and the front part is fixed to the surface with the setae. When te longitudinal muscles contract, the body becomes shorter and teh hind part is pulled up. 

Snake: Snake's body curves into many loops . Each loop gives it a forward push by pressing against the ground. Thus, the snake moves forward very fast and not in the straight line. 

Fish:- The skeleton of the fish is covered with strong muscles. During swimming, muscles make the front part of the body curve to one side and the tail part swings towards the opposite side. This makes a jerk and pushes the fish forward. A series of such jerks help the fish swim ahead. 

Next Chapter: 

The Living Organisms and Their Surroundings Class VI.

Coastal Plains and the Isands

 A. Fill in the blanks. 

1. The Western coastal Plain lies between the Arabian sea and the western ghats.

2. The Narmada and Tapi flow along the Western coastal Plain.

3. The Eastern coastal Plain in Tamil Nadu is known as the Coromandel Coast.

4. The Mahanadi delta is known as the "Rice of Bowl of India". 

5. Andaman and Nicobar Islands are situated in the Bay of Bengal.

6. Lakshadweep Islands consist of a group of 36 coral islands.

B. Tick the right answer.

1. The Western Coastal Plain in the south is know as 

ans. Malabar coast

2. Oil wells have been dug from the 

ans. Mumbai Coast

3. The river Narmada which originate from the Vindhyas flows into the 

ans. Arabian Sea

4. The Lakshadweep Islands are situated in the 

ans. Arabian Sea

5. The important food of the people of the islands is 

ans. rice with fish

C. Write T for True and F for False.

1. India's coastline stretches from Gujarat to West Bengal True. 

2. The Eastern coastal Plain lies between Kerala and Gujarat False

3. The coastal regions experience hot and hud weather throughout the year. True.

4. The natives  of the islands live by fishing or farming True

5.Many tourists visit the islands because of their scenic beauty False.

D. Answer the following 

1. What is a coast ? Describe the climate of the coastal regions.

ans. A coast is the part of the lands adjoining or near the sea.

During the summer season the days and nights are hot and Mansoon strikes in July and lasts till September.

2. What are the main occupations of the people in the coastal regions? 

ans.   Agriculture, fishing,seafood processing, salt making,mining and dairy farming are main ocupations of the people in the coastal regions

3. What is an Island?

ans. An Island is any area of land which is surrounded by water.

4. Most of the Islands of Andaman and Nicobar are not populated. Why.

Ans. They do not have fresh water and are covered with dense forest.

5. Why is the Cellular Jail in Port Blair famous?

ans. Cellular Jail is famous because many Indian freedom fighters were kept during British period. 

 

The previous Chapter 

Globes and Maps Class IV.

Getting to Know Plants

 Fill in The Blanks

1. Short Plants is a herb.

2. The cap-like structure that protects te tip of the root is called root cap

3. The plant part that bears flowers, fruits and leaves is called shoot-system.

4. The main vein of the lea is called midrib.

5. The stalk of flower is called pedicel.

6. The arrangement of veins in a leaf is called venation.

7. A flower with male as well as female reproductive organs is called hermaphrodite. 

8. Loss of water from the leaves in the form of water vapour is called transpiration.

 

B. Multiple choice questions

1. The plant with thick, brown, woody stem is 

ans. tree

2. Which of the following has a tap root?

ans. turnip

3. The point on the stem where new leves arise is called a 

ans. node

4. The leaves are green due to the presence of 

ans. chlorophyll

5. The male reproductive organs of a flower is 

ans. stamen

6. A flower without a stalk is called 

ans. sessile flower 

C. Very short Answer 

1. Name the main root of tap root system primary root.

2. The space between two nodes internode

3. Name one shrub rose

4. Weak-stemmed plants that need support to climb climbers

5. Name one plant that has leaves with parallel venation maize.

6. Name one plant that has leaves with reticulate venation mango

 

D. Short answer questions 

 1. In which part of the plant will you find the following

ans. a. node:-stem 

        b. lamina-leaf

        c. ovary- pistil

        d. petiole- leaf

        e. filament-stamens

2. Give one example of each of the following

ans. 

a. Fibrous rots- maize

b. climber-money plant

c. creeper-pumpkin

d. complete-flower-glmohar 

 

3. Differentiate between

a tap root system and fibrous root system

ans. Tap root system:- When a plant has one big root with many branches at its sides, it is known as tap root system, e.g. bean, gram, mango, radish, carrot etc. 

Fibrous root system:- When a bunch of slender fiber like roots arise from the base of the stem, it is called fibrous root system. e.g. wheat, maize, paddy, grass

b. Stamen and pistil

ans. 

Stamen:-The male reproductive part of a flower is called stamen

Pistil:- The female reproductive part of a flower is called pistil.

 

4. What is transpiration?

ans. The loss of excess of water from the plant in the form of water vapour through stomata is called transpiration. 

5. What is venation? Name two types of venation with one example of each.

ans. The arrangement of veins on the leaf is called venation. Reticulate venation in mango and parallel venation in wheat are the example. 

6. Define pollination.

ans. The transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of a flower is called pollination.

E.  Long answer questions.

 1. List the important functions of root and stem. 

Ans. Roots do the following functions

(a) Fixation:- Roots help in fixing the plant firmly to the soil.

(b) Absorption: Roots absorb water and mineral salts from the soil which are necessary for the growth of the plant.

(c) Conduction: Roots also conduct water and mineral salkts up to the leaves through the stem where the food is actually made.

(d) Storage: Roots of some plants like beetroot, carrot radish, turnip ans sweet potato store extra food in them. We eat them as vegetables. 

(e) Support: Some roots provide extra support to the plant. These roots are of two types stilt and prop roots 

(f) Climbing: In some plants like betel, money plant, etc roots arise from the nodes and help the plant to stick and climb up the wall. They are called climbing roots. 

2. Describe the structure of of a flower with the help of a well-labelled diagram.

ans. Flower has slender stalk called the pedicel by which it is attached to the stem. A flower without a pedicel is said to be sessile. The pedicel is slightly enlarged at its tip ot form a cushion-like part called the thalamus or receptacle. 

From the thalamus arise the various parts of the flower in  four sets of whorls one within the other. 

There are floral parts as under:

Sepal: The outer most part of a flower.

Petals: Showy parts of a flower. They protect stamens and ovary.

Stamens: It is the male part of flower.

Pistil: It it the female part of a flower. 

When all the parts present in a flower, they are called complete flowers and in some flowers, one or more part is missing they are called incomplete flowers. 

3. What is the use of stomata in plants? Where are they located?

ans.  The leaf surface is covered with minute pores. They are called stomata Exchange of gases takes places through stomata. During this process oxygen is taken in and carbon dioxide is given out. This process is called respiration. 

They are located in leaves of plants.

4. Discuss the functions of a leaf in detail.

ans. Photosynthesis: The leaves of the plant prepare food for the plant. Process by which leaves of plants make food in the presence of sunlight is called photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is unique to green plants. It supplies food to the plants and oxygen to other forms of life. 

Respiration: Exchange of gases takes place through the stomata of the leaf. During this process oxygen is taken in and carbon dioxide is given out. It is called respiration.

Transpiration: The excess of water in the plant is sent out in the form of water in the plant is sent out in the form of water vapour through the stomata. 

Vegetative Propagation: in bryophyllum and begonia plants, leaf-buds develop on te margin of the leaf. The buds fall on the ground and develop into new plants. 

Storage: Some leaves do the function of storage of food. Leaves of cabbage became thick and fleshy when they store food and water. We eat leaves of some plants as vegetables due to their food value,

Have look at the following chapters too.

Body Movement Class VI Science 

Fibre to Fabric Class VI Science 

Changes Around us Class VI Science

 Separation of Substances Class VI Science

Sorting Materials into groups class VI Science

Lights, Shadows and Reflections Science Class VI

 Components of Food Class VI Science

 

There was a naughty boy

 Test your reading

1. Fill in the blanks:

(a) The naughty boy ran away to Scotland.

(b) He found that a door was as wooden as in England.

(c) He found the ground in Scotland as hard as at home. 

(d) He found that fourscore was as eighty as at home.

(e) He stood in his shoes and wondered.

2. Answer the following questions:

a. What did the naughty boy do ?

ans. The naughty boy ran away to Scotland. 

b. Where is the home of the naughty boy?

ans. The home of the naughty boy is in England.

c. Make a list of things found similar in Scotland and England by the naughty boy.

ans. He found the following things similar ground, yard, cherry,doors. 

d. What did the boy do when he found that everything was similar?

ans. The boy was surprised and became active.  

3. Find abstract nouns in each sentence and write it in the blank space.

(a) The Taj Mahal is a model of beauty.

ans. beauty

(b)He was very naughty in his childhood. 

ans. childhood.

(c) Indian soldiers are known for their bravery.

ans. bravery

(d) We believe in equality of man and woman.

ans.  equality

(e) We got freedom in 1947.

ans. freedom

4. Fill in the blanks with appropriate reflexive pronoun:

a. I saw myself in the mirror.

b. She fell down and injured herself.

c. Don't curse yourself/ yourselves.

d. He blamed himself for the defeat.

e. We enjoyed ourselves on the beach.

5. Fill in the blanks using relative pronouns:

a. This is the boy who won the championship.

b.I have lost the pen which you gave me.

c. This is the place where he was born.

d. He is the man whom she was looking for.

e. This is the watch that my papa gave me. 

TEST YOUR VOCABULARY

6. Add 'less' to the following words:

fear- fearless

back- backless

law-lawless

profit-profitless

self-selfless

top-topless

7. Add 'ing' to the words given below:

make- making

rise-rising

take-taking 

dine-dining

write-writing

name-naming

 

Click the links below to get the questions and answers of the previous chapters.

The Barber and the Woodcutter (English -Lesson-1) 

The mother who loved the Poor (English- Lesson-2)

 

Changes around us

 Fill in the blanks.

1. Melting of ice-cream is reversible change.

2. Ripening of fruits is a chemical change.

3. Breaking of glass is a physical change.

4. Expansion on heating is maximum in gas and minimum in solid.

B. Multiple choice questions

1. Which of the following is a reversible change?

ans. Melting of an ice-cream.

2. In which of the following, property of expansion and contraction of metals is utilized?

ans. All of the above

3. Baking of cake is an example of 

ans. Both chemical change and irreversible change

4. Expansion gaps are kept in railway tracks because of 

ans. Expansion of rails in hot weather.

5. Most of chemical changes are 

ans. Irreversible 

C. Very short answer questions (one word)

1. A change in which no new substances are formed 

ans. physical changes

2. Name one reversible change

ans. Melting ice.

3. Squeezing of rubber ball is a chemical change. 

ans.False

4.  Growth of child is a fast change. 

ans. False

5. Rusting of iron is fast or slow change.

ans. Slow

D. Short answer questions.

1. Define

a. Reversible Change:

Changes  that can be reversed when the cause of the change is removed. For example melting of ice. 

b. Irreversible Change:

the changes that cannot be reversed. For example spoiling of food

c. Physical Change:

The change in which no new substances are formed. For tearing of paper.

d. Chemical Change:

The changes in which new substances with different properties are formed. For example burning of candle.

2. What happened when ice is heated? Is it a reversible or irreversible change?

Ans. When the ice is heated it changes into water. Is it a reversible change as it can be reversed when the cause of the change is removed. 

3. Burning of a paper is reversible or irreversible change? Why?

ans. Burning of a paper is irreversible as we cannot get back the paper. 

4. What is the effect of heating and cooling on substances?

ans. Heating leads to expansion while cooling leads to contraction of substances.

5. Do you agree" all physical changes are reversible"? If not, give the correct statement.

ans. No, there are some physical changes that are irreversible. For example tearing of paper. When the paper is torn, the size and shape of the paper changes, but the molecules of the paper remains same.

6. Breaking of a glass tumblers and burning of paper are changes in which we do not get the original substance back. What is the difference between theses two changes?

ans. No new substance is formed  after breaking of a glass tumblers. It has properties of glass but it is broken into pieces

Burning of a paper is a chemical change. Paper turns into ashes after it burns and there has no properties of paper. 

E. Long answer questions

1. Give examples to explain the difference between changes that can or cannot be reversed.

ans. Changes are reversible as well as irreversible. A balloon becomes larger when we inflate it with air. It comes to its original shape when the air is let out. In this changes we can see that the change gets reversed when the cause of the change is removed.

There are also changes where the substances cannot be brought back to their original state. An inflated balloon if pricked, it bursts. This bursted balloon cannot be brought back to its original shape. Likewise, chapatis cannot be brought back to the original dough and dough into flour.  

2. Differentiate between a physical and a chemical change.

ans. Physical Change:- Changes in which no new substances are formed are called physical changes, e.g. breaking of a glass, freezing of water, melting of ice cream, 

Chemical Change:- Changes in which new substances with different properties are formed, are called chemical changes, e.g. cooking of food, burning of a substance, 

3. When a candle burns, both physical and chemical changes occur. Explain this.

ans. On heating candle wax melts and form liquid wax. It is physical change since it again turns into solid wax on cooling. When candle is burnt in air, the mass of the product is increased due to atmospheric oxygen. It is chemical change. 

4.  Write three different applications of expansion and contraction of solid.

ans. 1. Iron tools is fixed to wooden handle:-

The iron blade has a ring in which the wooden handle is to be fixed. Normally, the wooden ring is made bit smaller than than the wooden handle. To fix handle ring is heated. Heating expands the iron ad the ring becomes slightly larger in size. The handle is inserted into the ring which easily fits in the ring tightly after contraction.

 2. Fixing Metal rim over the cart-wheel:-

Metal rim is heated until it is red-hot and forced on to the wooden wheel. Rims are made slightly smaller and when they are heated, they expand and fit onto the wheel. There after, cold water is poured over the rim to cool it. On cooling rim contracts and fits onto the wheel.

3. Joints in railway tracts:-

While laying railway tracks gaps are left between rails to allow expansion  during summer. If no gaps are left, the rails will bend in summer due to expansion.

5. Write two application of expansion and contraction of gases.

ans. If you keep an inflated balloon in the sun, you will see the size of the balloon increase this shows the expansion of the gas in the balloon because of heat of the sun. 

and if an inflated balloon is tied at the mouth of a bottle and the bottle is left in cold water, you will see the size of the balloon would shrink because of the air inside the balloon contracts on cooling. This is contraction of gas. 

Like wise, automobile tyres get frequently punctured or burst during summer because of expansion of air in the tube. That's why it is advised to fill less air in tyre during summer or let some air out of the tyre.

Click the links given below to get notes of the previous chapters.

 Components of Food 

Light,Shadows and Reflections 

Separation of Substances

Body Movement 

 

An Encounter in the Woods

 Comprehension

A.  1. They peeped softly and sadly if they were left even a few inches behind, and they looked really fragile.

2. She watched every bush, every tree, the woods and even the sky.

3. In a few moments, he was sure to see or smell them. 

4. But no matter how fast he went and leaped, Mother Partridge was always faster.

5. he also remembered that this was not the first time he had been fooled just this way.

6. An enemy could not have heard his sweet little 'peep peep' three feet away, but Mother Partridge would have heard it if it was thrice as far. 

B. 1. The baby partridges were one-day-old. They could already walk quickly. They looked like little balls of fur. They toddled on tiny pink legs and peeped softly and sadly if left behind. They looked very fragile. They were also very obedient because they listened to their mother as soon as she told them to hide and they did not move from their hiding places till she asked them to come to her.

2. Mother Partridge flew toward the fox. She came down bravely, and then threw herself on the ground. She moved as if she was lame, and made a sound as if she was hurt. The fox turned and tried to catch her, but could not. She always moved so that something like a small plant or a log came between them. No matter how fast the fox ran or jumped, she always managed to move out of his reach.

3. Yes, the mother partridge was really cleverer than the fox. We know this as she managed to fool and defeat the fox by pretending to be lame and hurt. The fox thought that he would catch her easily, but he could never catch her at all. She also managed to save her babies from him. And she had saved them the same way more than once. 

4. a. The fact that the fox had not been able to catch the mother partridge even after five minutes' racing was really strange.

b. It was strange because the fox was quick and clever. He was also very powerful and strong, and much bigger than the bird. He should have been able to catch the bird very easily. But actually, he could not catch her at all. 

5. a He, the fox, realized that the partridge had made a fool of him when she flew away. 

b. The fox also realized that his was not the first time that the partridge had fooled him just this way. But he did not understand why she did this. 

c. He was fooled because Mother partridge wanted to keep him away from her babies.

6. When the mother partridge came back, she saw that all her babies were hiding. They had not moved even when they heard her step. When she called to them to come, only then did all the baby birds come out of their hiding places. The baby on the chip opened his eyes and ran to hide under her tail. all the other babies joined them.

 

C. Suggested answer (accept any logical answer):-

Mother partridge is loving, brave and clever. She takes good care of all her babies and saves them from the fox. She is not afraid to fly close to the fox and race with him. She manages to make a fool of him, not just once but quite a few times. 

GRAMMAR

A. 2. That

3. this 

4. Whom 

5. which 

6. Those

7. these 

8. What

B. 2. herself  

3. himself 

4. themselves

5. ourselves

6. yourselves

7. itself

C. 2. Who 

3. yourself/yourselves

4. That 

5. itself

6. Which

Vocabulary

A. 1. loose;lose

2. roll;role

3. wait;weight

4. threw;through

5. won;one

6. week;weak

B.1.  an argument 

2. advangage

3. a photo

4. lunch

5. a problem 

6. action 

Please click the following links of the previous chapters given below to get their notes:- 

Monkey Trouble Lesson 1

 Mina and the Dinosaurs Lesson-2

The Fly (poem ) 

 

 

TO BE CONTINUED.......

The Canterville Ghost

A. 

1. Lord Canterville, the former owner of Canterville Chase, and Mrs Umney the housekeeper, believe that the ghost exists.

2. Mr. Otis and his family-Mrs Otis, his son Washington, daughter Virginia and the twins do not believe in the ghost.

3.  It does not seem as though Mrs Umney really fainted. She might have very frightened and her mind might have gone blank. But she recovered too quickly for it to have been an actual fainting spell.

4. The twins decide to camp out in the library at night and wait for ghost. Clark would sleep by the door and Lewis would sleep on the desk so that he could jump on the ghost and trap him.

5. Mr Otis offers oil for the ghost's chains.

6. Ghost feels insulted because no one is frightened by his appearance. Mr. Otis offers him oil for his chains and the twins throw a pillow at him. This had never happened to him before. This angers the ghost and he swears revenge.  

B. 1. a. Mr. Otis offers the oil because he cannot sleep. The creaking of the chains disturbs him.

b. The oil would make the rings of the chain move smoothly and so Mr. Otis would not be disturbed by its clanking sound.

c. The chains were creaking because they were rusty and old. At the same time, the ghost made sure that they clanked more, so as to frighten the Otis family and announce his arrival. 

2. a The ghost was angry because he felt insulted. Mr. Otis offered him oil and the twins threw a pillow at him. People had always been frightened of him. It was an exceptional situation with the Otis family because they did not believe in ghosts.  

b. The ghost thinks that the Otis family is ignorant and unaware of the furore that he can create. He has always created chaos with his fearful appearances. The Otis family has seen none of that. 

c. The ghost was treated with fear and reverence by the Canterville family. No one in the Canterville mansion had ever dared mock his appearance or presence. 

C. 1. The Duchess of Bolton, Lord Canterville's grand-aunt, is terrified at the canterville Ghost's appearance. She is seen being lead to a chair by the butler and the housekeeper. They give her a drink of water. The duchess  narrates that she has felt the icy touch of bony hands on herself. At first she dismissed it as cold draught. But then she noticed a pair of skeleton hands.

2. The Otis family is not frightened by the bloodstains. Mrs. Otis wants it removed because it looks ugly. Washington takes out a small stick and rubs it over the stain. On the other hand, Mrs. Umney regards the blood satin with fear and speaks about it in a hushed tone. She tells the Otis family that it is the blood of Lady Eleanore de Canterville, who was murdered by her husband, Sir Simon de Canterville. Sir Canterille disappeared for nine years and his body was never found. 

3. The atmosphere is calm before the ghost arrives. The arrival of the ghost is heard along with the clanking sound of metals. The ghost casts a green light about him and fills the air with groans after he leaves. But after Mr Otis goes back to his room, the ghost is very angry. He plans to take revenge at the end. Till now, the ghost was only trying to make his presence felt and was trying to scare the newcomers but now, in his rage he plans to truly terrify them and disrupt their lives.

D. d. to contrast and make fun of British and American cultures.

E. 1. Showing interest in new traditions and customs.

2. Pointing out that they do not pronounce words in the same way you do, and laughting.

3. Showing little interest in understanding their country or customs.

4. Being respectful even if you do not fully understand what they are telling you.

Being friendly and introducing them to your own country and culture. 

GRAMMAR

A. 2-P 

3-P

4-C

5-C

6-C

B. 2 AVP

3. PP

4. AP

5. AVP

6. PP

C. 1. My aunt and uncle have a beautiful garden. noun phrase

2. I could not go out with my friends because I was with my mother. adverb phrase

3. The lady in the green sari is my aunt. adjective phrase

4. She sings like a bird. adverb phrase

5. I found my shoes under the bed. prepositional phrase

Please click the title of the previous chapters to get the notes written below in blue:

 Walk to Remember Lession-1 

Little Girls are Wiser Lession 2